In addition to Cluster of Differentiation (CD) markers, there are numerous non-CD markers used in immunological research to identify and characterize various immune cell populations. These markers also provide insights into cell types, functional states, and interactions within the immune system. For example, Foxp3 (Forkhead Box P3) is a transcription factor highly expressed in regulatory T cells (Tregs), cells that play a role in immune suppression and maintaining self-tolerance. Detection of Foxp3 is essential for identifying and studying Tregs in autoimmune diseases, cancer, and immune therapy. In contrast, granzyme B and perforin are molecules associated with cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells. They are functionally involved in inducing cell death in target cells, making them important markers for assessing the cytotoxic activity of immune cells against infected or abnormal cells. IFN-γ is a cytokine produced by T cells, particularly T helper 1 (Th1) cells and cytotoxic T cells. It plays a critical role in activating macrophages, enhancing antigen presentation, and promoting immune responses against intracellular pathogens. IL-4 (Interleukin-4) is a cytokine produced by T helper 2 (Th2) cells. It stimulates B cell proliferation and antibody class switching to IgE, contributing to humoral immune responses and allergic reactions. IL-17 (Interleukin-17) is a cytokine produced by T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Th17 T cells are a subset of CD4+ T helper cells that play a critical role in immune responses, particularly in defence against bacteria and fungi, as well as in autoimmune and inflammatory processes. CD25 and Foxp3 (Tregs), whilst CD25 is a CD marker, its expression on regulatory T cells (Tregs) is critical for their suppressive function. Combining CD25 with Foxp3 staining allows a more precise identification of Tregs within immune cell populations. Some other non-CD markers frequently used in immunological studies include: 1) CCR7 (C-C Chemokine Receptor 7), a chemokine receptor that guides T cells and dendritic cells to lymph nodes, facilitating immune cell trafficking and interactions; 2) PD-1 (Programmed Cell Death Protein 1) and CTLA-4 (Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Antigen 4), immune checkpoint proteins important for regulating immune responses. PD-1 and CTLA-4 are also targeted in cancer immunotherapies to enhance T cell responses against tumours; 3) T-bet, GATA3, RORγt, and Bcl6, transcription factors associated with different T helper cell subsets. T-bet for Th1, GATA3 for Th2, RORγt for Th17, and Bcl6 for T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. They regulate cell differentiation and cytokine production in distinct immune contexts; 4) CD16 and CD56, markers used to identify natural killer (NK) cells. CD16 is a low-affinity Fc receptor, and CD56 is a neural cell adhesion molecule that allows NK cells to adhere to target cells. Together, these markers define NK cell subsets and their functional states; 5) F4/80, a marker expressed on macrophages, is used to identify tissue-resident macrophages in various organs and study their roles in immune responses and tissue homeostasis. We provide a wide product catalogue of research tools for studying non-CD markers, including HLA DR + HLA DP antibodies, CD1b antibodies, Cathepsin S antibodies, and Cathepsin S ELISA Kits. Explore our full non-CD markers product range below and discover more, for less. Alternatively, you can explore our APC product range.