Unconjugated
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is an important diabetic complication, and podocyte apoptosis plays a critical role in the development of DN. In the present study, we examined the preventive effect of the total flavone glycosides of Flos Abelmoschus manihot (TFA) on urinary microalbumin and glomerular podocyte apoptosis in experimental DN rats. The preliminary oral administration of TFA (200 mg/kg/day) for 24 weeks significantly decreased the urinary microalbumin to creatinine ratio and 24-h urinary total protein in streptozotocin-induced DN rats. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling assay indicated glomerular cell apoptosis in DN rats was significantly improved by pretreatment with TFA. Furthermore, fluorescence-activated cell sorting and Hoechst 33342 staining suggested preincubation with hyperoside (50 and 200 μg/mL), the major active constituent of TFA, could significantly mitigate cultured podocyte apoptosis induced by the advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). Western blot analysis showed that increased caspase-3 and caspase-8 expressions induced by AGEs were also inhibited by pretreatment with hyperoside at both doses. Our results demonstrate that TFA pretreatment can decrease urinary albumin excretion in early-stage DN, which might be accomplished by preventing renal damage and podocyte apoptosis.
Numerous studies have demonstrated the antioxidant effects of grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE). The generation of free radicals and the ensuing apoptosis may contribute to the pathogenesis of epilepsy; therefore, in the present study, we examined the effects of GSPE on cognitive impairment and neuronal damage induced by chronic seizures in rats. Seizures were induced by a daily intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ; 35 mg/kg/day, 36 days). Two other groups were treated with GSPE (100 or 200 mg/kg/day, orally) for 24 days and then for 36 days prior to each PTZ injection. After the final PTZ injection, hippocampus-dependent spatial learning was assessed using the Morris water maze (MWM). The rats were then sacrificed for the measurement of hippocampal malondialdehyde (MDA, a measure of lipid peroxidation) and glutathione (GSH, a measure of endogenous antioxidant capacity) levels, and for the expression of pro-apoptotic factors [cytochrome c (Cyt c), caspase‑9 and caspase‑3]. The mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), degree of mitochondrial swelling, neuronal damage and mitochondrial ultrastructure were also examined. Performance in the MWM was markedly impaired by PTZ-induced seizures, as evidenced by longer escape latencies during training and fewer platform crossings during the probe trial. This cognitive decline was accompanied by oxidative stress (MDA accumulation, ROS generation, reduced GSH activity), an increased expression of pro-apoptotic proteins, as well as damage to CA1 pyramidal neurons and the mitochondria. Pre-treatment with GSPE dose‑dependently reversed PTZ-induced impaired performance in the MWM, oxidative stress, mitochondrial ROS generation, the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins and neuronal and mitochondrial damage. Thus, GSPE may reverse the hippocampal dysfunction induced by chronic seizures, by reducing oxidative stress and preserving mitochondrial function.