TGF

The TGF (Transforming Growth Factor) family and its corresponding receptors, the TGFR (TGF Receptor) family, play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes and are involved in numerous physiological and pathological conditions. TGF-β is a multifunctional cytokine that exists in three isoforms: TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3. It regulates cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, immune responses, and tissue repair. TGF-β also influences the extracellular matrix and angiogenesis. The TGF family includes a variety of other related growth factors, including: 1) Activins. Activins are involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and embryonic development. They regulate the synthesis of hormones, growth factors, and other regulatory molecules. Activins are composed of β subunits, primarily βA and βB; 2) Inhibins. Inhibins are antagonists of activins and play a role in negative feedback regulation of hormone secretion. They consist of α and β subunits and mainly inhibit the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); 3) Nodal. Nodal is a crucial factor in embryonic development, particularly in establishing the left-right body axis and determining cell fate during gastrulation. There are two main receptors for TGF growth factors, Type I receptors, which include TGFBR1 (also known as ALK5) and ACVR1/ALK2, among others. These are serine/threonine kinases that transduce signals from TGF-β, activins, and nodal ligands. Type I receptors initiate signalling cascades by phosphorylating downstream molecules, such as Smad proteins. Type II receptors, which include TGFBR2, ACVR2A, and ACVR2B bind to ligands and form complexes with type I receptors to initiate downstream signalling. Type II receptors are critical for ligand recognition and receptor activation. Aberrant TGF-β signalling is associated with cancer development and progression. Depending on the context, TGF-β can have both tumour-suppressive and tumour-promoting effects, influencing tumour cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and immune evasion. In early stages of cancer development, TGF-β acts as a tumour suppressor by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing cell cycle arrest. It promotes differentiation and apoptosis, helping to maintain normal tissue homeostasis and prevent uncontrolled cell growth. As cancer progresses, tumours can acquire mutations or epigenetic alterations that lead to the loss of TGF-β-mediated growth inhibition. This allows cancer cells to evade the suppressive effects of TGF-β and continue proliferating. TGF-β signalling is further implicated in promoting cancer via induction of EMT, a process in which epithelial cells lose their characteristics and acquire mesenchymal traits. EMT enables cancer cells to become more invasive, migrate, and invade surrounding tissues, promoting metastasis.TGF-β can also modulate the immune system response in the tumour microenvironment and suppress immune surveillance and promote immune evasion by inhibiting the activation and function of various immune cells, including T cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. This immune suppression allows tumours to escape recognition and destruction by the immune system. TGF-β also stimulates the formation of new blood vessels ensuring a sufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients to the growing tumour mass. Finally, TGF-β promotes the production and remodelling of the extracellular matrix, which provides structural support for cells and tissues. Altered ECM composition and organization can facilitate tumour invasion and metastasis. We offer a comprehensive product range of research tools for investigating TGF, including Smad2 antibodies, TGF alpha antibodies, Smad1 antibodies, TGF beta 2 ELISA Kits, and TGF alpha ELISA Kits. Explore our full TGF product range below and discover more, for less.