Anti-Myc Tag Antikörper [MYC.A7] (A85281)

Protein ubiquitination regulated by ubiquitin ligases plays important roles in innate immunity. However, key regulators of ubiquitination during innate response and roles of new types of ubiquitination (apart from Lys48- and Lys63-linkage) in control of innate signaling have not been clearly understood. Here we report that F-box only protein Fbxo21, a functionally unknown component of SCF (Skp1-Cul1-F-box protein) complex, facilitates Lys29-linkage and activation of ASK1 (apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1), and promotes type I interferon production upon viral infection. Fbxo21 deficiency in mice cells impairs virus-induced Lys29-linkage and activation of ASK1, attenuates c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 signaling pathway, and decreases the production of proinflammatory cytokines and type I interferon, resulting in reduced antiviral innate response and enhanced virus replication. Therefore Fbxo21 is required for ASK1 activation via Lys29-linkage of ASK1 during antiviral innate response, providing mechanistic insights into non-proteolytic roles of SCF complex in innate immune response.

Histone amino-terminal tails (N-tails) are required for cellular resistance to DNA damaging agents; therefore, we examined the role of histone N-tails in regulating DNA damage response pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Combinatorial deletions reveal that the H2A and H3 N-tails are important for the removal of MMS-induced DNA lesions due to their role in regulating the basal and MMS-induced expression of DNA glycosylase Mag1. Furthermore, overexpression of Mag1 in a mutant lacking the H2A and H3 N-tails rescues base excision repair (BER) activity but not MMS sensitivity. We further show that the H3 N-tail functions in the Rad9/Rad53 DNA damage signaling pathway, but this function does not appear to be the primary cause of MMS sensitivity of the double tailless mutants. Instead, epistasis analyses demonstrate that the tailless H2A/H3 phenotypes are in the RAD18 epistasis group, which regulates postreplication repair. We observed increased levels of ubiquitylated PCNA and significantly lower mutation frequency in the tailless H2A/H3 mutant, indicating a defect in postreplication repair. In summary, our data identify novel roles of the histone H2A and H3 N-tails in (i) regulating the expression of a critical BER enzyme (Mag1), (ii) supporting efficient DNA damage signaling and (iii) facilitating postreplication repair.

Control of the eukaryotic G2/M transition by CDC2/CYCLINB is tightly regulated by protein-protein interactions, protein phosphorylations, and nuclear localization of CDC2/CYCLINB. We previously reported a screen, in Aspergillus nidulans, for extragenic suppressors of nimX2(cdc2) that resulted in the identification of the cold-sensitive snxA1 mutation. We demonstrate here that snxA1 suppresses defects in regulators of the CDK1 mitotic induction pathway, including nimX2(cdc) (2), nimE6(cyclinB), and nimT23(cdc) (25), but does not suppress G2-arresting nimA1/nimA5 mutations, the S-arresting nimE10(cyclinB) mutation, or three other G1/S phase mutations. snxA encodes the A. nidulans homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hrb1/Gbp2; nonessential shuttling messenger RNA (mRNA)-binding proteins belonging to the serine-arginine-rich (SR) and RNA recognition motif (RRM) protein family; and human heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein-M, a spliceosomal component involved in pre-mRNA processing and alternative splicing. snxA(Hrb) (1) is nonessential, its deletion phenocopies the snxA1 mutation, and its overexpression rescues snxA1 and ΔsnxA mutant phenotypes. snxA1 and a second allele isolated in this study, snxA2, are hypomorphic mutations that result from decreased transcript and protein levels, suggesting that snxA acts normally to restrain cell cycle progression. SNXA(HRB1) is predominantly nuclear, but is not retained in the nucleus during the partially closed mitosis of A. nidulans. We show that the snxA1 mutation does not suppress nimX2 by altering NIMX2(CDC2)/NIME(CYCLINB) kinase activity and that snxA1 or ΔsnxA alter localization patterns of NIME(CYCLINB) at the restrictive temperatures for snxA1 and nimX2. Together, these findings suggest a novel and previously unreported role of an SR/RRM family protein in cell cycle regulation, specifically in control of the CDK1 mitotic induction pathway.

The tubulin cofactor C domain-containing protein TbRP2 is a basal body (centriolar) protein essential for axoneme formation in the flagellate protist Trypanosoma brucei, the causal agent of African sleeping sickness. Here, we show how TbRP2 is targeted and tethered at mature basal bodies and provide novel insight into TbRP2 function. Regarding targeting, understanding how several hundred proteins combine to build a microtubule axoneme is a fundamental challenge in eukaryotic cell biology. We show that basal body localization of TbRP2 is mediated by twinned, N-terminal TOF (TON1, OFD1, and FOP) and LisH motifs, motifs that otherwise facilitate localization of only a few conserved proteins at microtubule-organizing centers in animals, plants, and flagellate protists. Regarding TbRP2 function, there is a debate as to whether the flagellar assembly function of specialized, centriolar tubulin cofactor C domain-containing proteins is processing tubulin, the major component of axonemes, or general vesicular trafficking in a flagellum assembly context. Here we report that TbRP2 is required for the recruitment of T. brucei orthologs of MKS1 and MKS6, proteins that, in animal cells, are part of a complex that assembles at the base of the flagellum to regulate protein composition and cilium function. We also identify that TbRP2 is detected by YL1/2, an antibody classically used to detect α-tubulin. Together, these data suggest a general processing role for TbRP2 in trypanosome flagellum assembly and challenge the notion that TbRP2 functions solely in assessing tubulin "quality" prior to tubulin incorporation into the elongating axoneme.

Single-nucleotide substitutions and small in-frame insertions or deletions identified in human breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 are frequently classified as variants of unknown clinical significance (VUS) due to the availability of very limited information about their functional consequences. Such variants can most reliably be classified as pathogenic or non-pathogenic based on the data of their co-segregation with breast cancer in affected families and/or their co-occurrence with a pathogenic mutation. Biological assays that examine the effect of variants on protein function can provide important information that can be used in conjunction with available familial data to determine the pathogenicity of VUS. In this report, we have used a previously described mouse embryonic stem (mES) cell-based functional assay to characterize eight BRCA2 VUS that affect highly conserved amino acid residues and map to the N-terminal PALB2-binding or the C-terminal DNA-binding domains. For several of these variants, very limited co-segregation information is available, making it difficult to determine their pathogenicity. Based on their ability to rescue the lethality of Brca2-deficient mES cells and their effect on sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents, homologous recombination and genomic integrity, we have classified these variants as pathogenic or non-pathogenic. In addition, we have used homology-based modeling as a predictive tool to assess the effect of some of these variants on the structural integrity of the C-terminal DNA-binding domain and also generated a knock-in mouse model to analyze the physiological significance of a residue reported to be essential for the interaction of BRCA2 with meiosis-specific recombinase, DMC1.

Biallelic mutations in the human breast cancer susceptibility gene, BRCA2, are associated with Fanconi anemia, implying that some persons who inherit 2 deleterious variants of BRCA2 are able to survive even though it is well established that BRCA2 is indispensable for viability in mice. One such variant, IVS7 + 2T > G, results in premature protein truncation because of skipping of exon 7. Surprisingly, the persons who are either IVS7 + 2T > G homozygous or compound heterozygous are born alive but die of malignancy associated with Fanconi anemia. Using a mouse embryonic stem cell-based functional assay, we found that the IVS7 + 2T > G allele produces an alternatively spliced transcript lacking exons 4-7, encoding an in-frame BRCA2 protein with an internal deletion of 105 amino acids (BRCA2(Δ105)). We demonstrate that BRCA2(Δ105) is proficient in homologous recombination-mediated DNA repair as measured by different functional assays. Evaluation of this transcript in normal and leukemia cells suggests that BRCA2(Δ105) may contribute to the viability of persons inheriting this mutation. In this study, we have also characterized 5 other BRCA2 variants and found 3 of these (p.L2510P, p.R2336H, and p.W2626C) to be deleterious and 2 (p.I2490T and p.K2729N) probably neutral. Such studies are important to understand the functional significance of unclassified BRCA2 variants.

Emi2 (also called Erp1) inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) and thereby causes metaphase II arrest in unfertilized vertebrate eggs. Both the D-box and the zinc-binding region (ZBR) of Emi2 have been implicated in APC/C inhibition. However, it is not well known how Emi2 interacts with and hence inhibits the APC/C. Here we show that Emi2 binds the APC/C via the C-terminal tail, termed here the RL tail. When expressed in Xenopus oocytes and egg extracts, Emi2 lacking the RL tail fails to interact with and inhibit the APC/C. The RL tail itself can directly bind to the APC/C, and, when added to egg extracts, either an excess of RL tail peptides or anti-RL tail peptide antibody can dissociate endogenous Emi2 from the APC/C, thus allowing APC/C activation. Furthermore, and importantly, the RL tail-mediated binding apparently promotes the inhibitory interactions of the D-box and the ZBR (of Emi2) with the APC/C. Finally, Emi1, a somatic paralog of Emi2, also has a functionally similar RL tail. We propose that the RL tail of Emi1/Emi2 serves as a docking site for the APC/C, thereby promoting the interaction and inhibition of the APC/C by the D-box and the ZBR.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE:

Dopamine and corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH; also known as corticotrophin-releasing factor) are key neurotransmitters in the interaction between stress and addiction. Repeated treatment with cocaine potentiates glutamatergic transmission in the rat basolateral amygdala/cortex pathway through a synergistic action of D1 -like dopamine receptors and CRH type-2α receptors (CRF2 α receptors). We hypothesized that this observed synergism could be instrumented by heteromers containing the dopamine D1 receptor and CRF2 α receptor.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH:

D1 /CRF2 α receptor heteromerization was demonstrated in HEK293T cells using co-immunoprecipitation, BRET and FRET assays, and by using the heteromer mobilization strategy. The ability of D1 receptors to signal through calcium, when singly expressed or co-expressed with CRF2 α receptors, was evaluated by the calcium mobilization assay.

KEY RESULTS:

D1 /CRF2 α receptor heteromers were observed in HEK293T cells. When singly expressed, D1 receptors were mostly located at the cell surface whereas CRF2 α receptors accumulated intracellularly. Interestingly, co-expression of both receptors promoted D1 receptor intracellular and CRF2 α receptor cell surface targeting. The heteromerization of D1 /CRF2 α receptors maintained the signalling through cAMP of both receptors but switched D1 receptor signalling properties, as the heteromeric D1 receptor was able to mobilize intracellular calcium upon stimulation with a D1 receptor agonist.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS:

D1 and CRF2 α receptors are capable of heterodimerization in living cells. D1 /CRF2 α receptor heteromerization might account, at least in part, for the complex physiological interactions established between dopamine and CRH in normal and pathological conditions such as addiction, representing a new potential pharmacological target.

© 2014 The British Pharmacological Society.

The Acetylation-dependent (Ac/) N-degron pathway degrades proteins through recognition of their acetylated N-termini (Nt) by E3-ligases called Ac/N-recognins. To date, specific Ac/N-recognins have not been defined in plants. Here we used molecular, genetic, and multi-omics approaches to characterise potential roles for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) DEGRADATION OF ALPHA2 10 (DOA10)-like E3-ligases in the Nt-acetylation-(NTA-) dependent turnover of proteins at global and protein-specific scales. Arabidopsis has two ER-localised DOA10-like proteins. AtDOA10A, but not the Brassicaceae-specific AtDOA10B, can compensate for loss of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ScDOA10 function. Transcriptome and Nt-acetylome profiling of an Atdoa10a/b RNAi mutant revealed no obvious differences in the global NTA profile compared to wildtype, suggesting that AtDOA10s do not regulate the bulk turnover of NTA substrates. Using protein steady-state and cycloheximide-chase degradation assays in yeast and Arabidopsis, we showed that turnover of ER-localised SQUALENE EPOXIDASE 1 (AtSQE1), a critical sterol biosynthesis enzyme, is mediated by AtDOA10s. Degradation of AtSQE1 in planta did not depend on NTA, but Nt-acetyltransferases indirectly impacted its turnover in yeast, indicating kingdom-specific differences in NTA and cellular proteostasis. Our work suggests that, in contrast to yeast and mammals, targeting of Nt-acetylated proteins is not a major function of DOA10-like E3 ligases in Arabidopsis and provides further insight into plant ERAD and the conservation of regulatory mechanisms controlling sterol biosynthesis in eukaryotes.

An increasing number of applications require the expression of single-chain variable fragments (scFv) fusion proteins in mammalian cells at the cell surface membrane. Here we assessed the CD30-specific scFv HRS3, which is used in immunotherapy, for its ability to retarget lentiviral vectors (LVs) to CD30 and to mediate selective gene transfer into CD30-positive cells. Fused to the C-terminus of the type-II transmembrane protein hemagglutinin (H) of measles virus and expressed in LV packaging cells, gene transfer mediated by the released LV particles was inefficient. A series of point mutations in the scFv framework regions addressing its biophysical properties, which substantially improved production and increased the melting temperature without impairing its kinetic binding behavior to CD30, also improved the performance of LV particles. Gene transfer into CD30-positive cells increased ∼100-fold due to improved transport of the H-scFv protein to the plasma membrane. Concomitantly, LV particle aggregation and syncytia formation in packaging cells were substantially reduced. The data suggest that syncytia formation can be triggered by trans-cellular dimerization of H-scFv proteins displayed on adjacent cells. Taken together, we show that the biophysical properties of the targeting ligand have a decisive role for the gene transfer efficiency of receptor-targeted LVs.